Hippocrates and the anatomy of the nervous system (Historical Note) / Hipócrates e a anatomia do sistema nervoso (Nota Hidtórica)

Hippocrates was one of the greatest physicians ever, and merited unquestionably, the title of 'Father of Medicine'. He, together with other authors, formed an assemble of texts known as 'Hippocratic Collection' (or 'Hippocratic Corpus'). There, the ample and brilliant medical experience remained documented, and left as a legacy. Even after almost two and a half millennia, these medical writings continue to be admired, and regarded as a lasting fount of inspiration. However, regarding anatomy, including that of the nervous system, and related structures, the texts are poor. About the nervous system, he mentioned the brain and its two hemispheres, the spinal cord, and the sensory organs. The related structures are also cited, comprising the meninges, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood vessels, as well as the skull, and the vertebral column. The functions of the brain were partly explained, and he ascribed to the brain the main ruling function of the body, a mark of encephalocentric position. Thus, counterposed to his ample medical accomplishments was his poor anatomical contribution. However, it must be recognized that the incipient contribution on anatomy that was legated, represented an important starting point for upcoming scholars and further studies on the subject.

Hipócrates foi um dos maiores médicos de todos os tempos, merecendo, de modo inquestionável, o título de 'Pai da Medicina'. Ele, juntamente com outros autores, constituiu um conjunto de textos conhecido como 'Coleção Hipocrática' (ou 'Corpo Hipocrático'). Lá, a ampla e brilhante experiência médica permaneceu documentada e deixada como um legado. Mesmo após quase dois e meio milênios, estes escritos médicos continuam a ser admirados e vistos como uma fonte duradoura de inspiração. Entretanto, considerando a anatomia, os textos são pobres, inclusive os sobre o sistema nervoso e estruturas relacionadas. Quanto ao sistema nervosa, ele mencionou o cérebro e seus dois hemisférios, a medula, e os órgãos sensoriais. As estruturas relacionadas também são mencionadas, compreendendo as meninges, o líquido cefalorraquidiano, e os vasos sanguíneos, assim como o crânio e a coluna vertebral. As funções cerebrais foram explicadas em parte e ele atribuiu ao cérebro a principal função de controle do corpo, uma marca de sua posição encefalocêntrica. Assim, contraposto às suas amplas realizações médicas foi sua contribuição anatômica pobre. Entretanto, deve ser reconhecido que a contribuição incipiente sobre anatomia que foi legada representou um ponto de partida importante para os estudiosos porvindouros e os estudos que prosseguiram sobre o assunto.

Countertraction method for reduction of irreducible subcoracoid dislocation of the shoulder joint with Hill-Sacks lesion / 中国骨伤

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate clinical outcomes of countertraction method in treating irreducible subcoracoid dislocation of shoulder joint combined with Hill-Sacks injury.@*METHODS@#A total of 56 patients with irreducible subcoracoid dislocation of the shoulder joint combined with Hill-Sacks injury admitted from December 2013 to June 2020 were retrospectively analyzed. Under the anesthesia of shoulder joint cavity injection, the reduction was performed by using anti-traction method (experimental group) and traditional Hippocrates method (control group), 28 cases in each group. There were 11 males and 17 females in experimental group, with an average age of (61.95±19.32) years old, 9 cases on the left side, and 19 cases on the right side. Twelve males and 16 females in control group, with an average age of (63.13±12.75) years old, 11 cases on the left side, 17 cases on the right side. The curative effects between two groups were evaluated before and after operation, including the success rate of reduction, the duration of reduction, the distance from successful reduction to injury, complications and functional rehabilitation(Constant score of shoulder joint).@*RESULTS@#The success rates of reduction in experimental group and control group were 92.86%(26/28) and 67.86% (19/28), respectively, and the difference was statistically significant (P<0.05). The duration of simple reduction was (4.25±2.13) min and ( 6.31±1.69) min, the difference was statistically significant (P<0.05);the time from successful reduction to injury was (9.16±0.94) h and (8.94±1.31) h, respectively, with no significant difference(P>0.05). There were no complications such as vascular nerve injury and fracture in experimental group, 2 cases of axillary nerve injury and 1 case of humeral head fracture in control group. Constant scores of shoulder joint between experimental group and control group were (92.34±5.62) points and (90.91±4.73) points, respectively, with no significant difference (P>0.05).@*CONCLUSION@#For patients with irreducible subcoracoid dislocation of the shoulder joint with Hill-Sacks injury, the countertraction method under anesthesia of the shoulder joint cavity achieved a higher success rate and few complications.

Clinical records: the medical writing from the patient's story to the medical narrative / Historia clínica: la escritura médica del relato del paciente a la narrativa médica

Abstract A historical follow-up on the medical diaries about the patient is made, from the Hippocratic texts to the appearance of the current canon of the clinical history formulated by Boerhaave in the seventeenth century, through the medieval consilia and the curationes and observationes of the Renaissance; and it is discussed how much the patient's story is present in those writings. It is postulated that the medical narrative that starts from adequately listening to the patient and his story, and adopts a literary workshop format, it is a pedagogical tool that contributes to comprehensive medical training, and offers the patient the opportunity to be treated in an empathic and humanized environment.

Resumen Se hace un seguimiento histórico a los escritos médicos sobre el paciente, desde los textos hipocráticos hasta la aparición del canon actual de historia clínica formulado por Boerhaave en el siglo XVII, pasando por los consilia medievales y las curationes y observationes del renacimiento; y se discute qué tanto el relato del paciente está presente en esos escritos. Se postula que la narrativa médica que parte de escuchar adecuadamente al paciente y su historia, y se trabaja en formato de taller literario, es una herramienta pedagógica que contribuye a la formación médica integral y ofrece la posibilidad de que el paciente pueda ser tratado en un medio empático y humanizado.

William Shakespeare y la medicina / William Shakespeare and medicine

Si repensamos a escritores que se ocuparon de la medicina, el presente trabajo pretende destacar a William Shakespeare, como un escritor que prácticamente en toda su obra describe en sus personajes problemas de salud de todo tipo. Se harán ciertas referencias de los aspectos médicos desarrollados en la obra del escritor, advirtiendo que son sólo una parte de su extensa producción. (AU)

If we rethink writers who dealt with medicine, this paper intends to highlight William Shakespeare, as a writer who practically describes all kinds of health problems in his characters. Certain references will be made of the medical aspects developed in the writer's work, warning that they are only part of his extensive production. (AU)

The founder of environment and disease theory：Hippocrates / 中华疾病控制杂志

Hippocrates (460-370 BC) is a famous doctor in ancient Greece and the founder of Western medicine. He is a “landmark” in the long history of human medicine and is considered as the first epidemiologist in history. He created the “Four Body Fluids” theory of medicine, freeing human medicine from theology and entering the natural medical model; His hard work on Airs, Waters, and Places, laid the epidemiological ideological foundation for more than 2 000 years; He was praised for his noble medical ethics, and his “Hippocrates Oath” has been extolled to today; he and his disciples have integrated the masterpiece “Hippocrates Collection” and passed on a generation of doctors. Therefore, Hippocrates is now known as the western “father of medicine”.

Ética, bioética y método clínico en el tratamiento de pacientes pediátricos aquejados de migraña / Ethics, bioethics and clinical method in the treatment of pediatric patients suffering from migraine

La migraña es una de las enfermedades que ha acompañado al hombre a lo largo de la vida. Con el objetivo de argumentar, mediante la recopilación de resultados de estudios clínicos de evidencias, la relación existente entre la ética médica y el método clínico en el tratamiento de migrañas en pacientes pediátricos, se realizó revisión de bibliografías sobre migraña, y algunos aspectos del cumplimiento de la ética médica y el método clínico, los que fueron considerados en el desarrollo de las consultas e interconsultas de Neurología del Hospital Pediátrico Universitario “William Soler”, incluyendo las consultas de Proyección Comunitaria del municipio de Boyeros, en La Habana, en los últimos 10 años. Se accedió a las bases de datos PubMed, Lilacs, Scielo y Google, se restringió la búsqueda por temática y para los últimos 10 años, así como estudios de evidencia, cuyas bases de datos se obtuvieron de las consultas y los resultados fueron publicados en revistas. Se exponen trabajos de evidencia relacionados con el tratamiento de la migraña, en los cuales se aprecia la comunión existente entre la Ética y el método clínico. Las evidencias demostradas en las publicaciones de la autora principal de este estudio sobre el tratamiento de la migraña en Pediatría, demuestran que se puede cumplir con la ética médica y el método clínico, apuntes de Hipócrates antes de nuestra era.

Migraine is a disease that has accompanied man throughout the life. With the objective of substantiating through the collection of results from clinical studies of evidence the relationship between the medical ethics and the clinical method in the treatment of migraine in pediatric patients, a literature review on migraine and on some aspects of the compliance with the medical ethics and the clinical method was made. These aspects had been considered in the medical consultation and interconsultation service of neurology in “William Soler” university pediatric hospital including the consultation service of the Community Project in Boyeros municipality in Havana in the last ten years. PubMed, Lilacs, Scielo and Goggle databases were accessed; search by topic and restricted to the last ten years was made as well as evidence-based studies whose databases were created from consultations, and the results were published in journals. Evidence papers related to the treatment of migraine were presented, in which the communion between ethics and the clinical method was reflected. The evidence shown in the publications of the main author of this study on the treatment of migraine in pediatrics prove that the medical ethics and the clinical method should be complied with, as Hippocrates said before the CE.

Understanding of Malaria and Its Therapeutic Regimens–The Way Forward.

Aim: Malaria is a very serious deadly disease that has attracted the attention of many researchers all over the world. Because a lot of work has been done in the area of malariology, there is need to understand its advance pattern and therapeutic regimens. Methods: Past and recent literatures on malaria were searched for information on history, global situation, classification, biology, pathology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and control of malaria to assess the progress made so far in the area of malariology. Results: Malaria is an ancient disease recognized by Hippocrates over 2413 years ago, caused by Plasmodium species, first identified by Charles-laveran 123 years ago affect 300–500 millions human worldwide, responsible for 3 deaths in every 30 seconds. The knowledge of classification, biology, pathology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of malaria is a tremendous achievement towards the control of the disease. Conclusion: But complete elimination of malaria perhaps will still take another time, since lots need to be known about the molecular biology of antigenic shift and drift, nature and mechanisms of action of the parasite toxin, in order to have basis for definite vaccine development. By so doing, radical cure and total eradication of malaria can be achieved.

Medieval European Medicine and Asian Spices / 의사학

This article aimed to explain the reasons why Asian spices including pepper, ginger, and cinnamon were considered as special and valuable drugs with curative powers in the Medieval Europe. Among these spices, pepper was most widely and frequently used as medicine according to medieval medical textbooks. We analyzed three main pharmacology books written during the Middle Ages. One of the main reasons that oriental spices were widely used as medicine was due to the particular medieval medical system fundamentally based on the humoral theory invented by Hippocrates and Galen. This theory was modified by Arab physicians and imported to Europe during the Middle Ages. According to this theory, health is determined by the balance of the following four humors which compose the human body: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Each humor has its own qualities such as cold, hot, wet, and dry. Humoral imbalance was one of the main causes of disease, so it was important to have humoral equilibrium. Asian spices with hot and dry qualities were used to balance the cold and wet European diet. The analysis of several major medical textbooks of the Middle Ages proves that most of the oriental spices with hot and dry qualities were employed to cure diverse diseases, particularly those caused by coldness and humidity. However, it should be noted that the oriental spices were considered to be much more valuable and effective as medicines than the local medicinal ingredients, which were not only easily procured but also were relatively cheap. Europeans mystified oriental spices, with the belief that they have marvelous and mysterious healing powers. Such mystification was related to the terrestrial Paradise. They believed that the oriental spices were grown in Paradise which was located in the Far East and were brought to the Earthly world along the four rivers flowing from the Paradise.

Empedocles' Influence on Hippocratic Medicine: The Problem of Hypothesis and Human Nature / 의사학

This paper aims to show Empedocles' influence on Hippocratic medicine through the analysis of two Hippocratic writings, i.e. On Ancient Medicine(AM) and On the Nature of Man(NM). I think that the author of AM criticizes philosophical physicians or natural philosophers, especially Empedocles, that at least Empedoclean philosophy is not necessary to medicine. On the contrary, the author of NM positively receives Empedoclean position in several aspects. It is necessary to examine these two writings in order to consider Empedocles' positive and negative influences on Hippocratic Medicine. The author of AM attacks the philosophical physicians who lay down as a hypothesis for their account hot or cold or wet or dry, in other words the same one or two things as the primary cause of all diseases. But it does not seem clear what the point of his criticism is. I think that his criticism lies on the following three points: (1) Hot or cold or wet or dry is neither the important cause of disease nor the important element for therapy;(2) The cause of diseases is not the same one or two things, but myriad things; (3) hypothesis as assumption is not necessary to medicine. These three points implies the criticism against cosmology and methodology of some early Greek philosophers, in particular Empedocles. Accordingly we should notice that the author attacks physicians influenced by Empedocles especially. Then whom does attack the author of AM? Lloyd points out Philolaus as the author's opponent, since he argues that man consists of the hot(Lloyd, 1963: 124-25). But I think that Lloyd narrowed down the opponent's range excessively. For example, if a physician holds that we consist of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that these are causes of diseases, does he belong to those whom the author attacked, or not? At a glance he doesn't seem to do. Because he lays down not one or two things as the cause of diseases, but four. But strictly we should tell that he does only two. Because hot and cold are contrary, and so both can not be causes of an disease at the same time. The same account applies to dry and wet too. Therefore even if someone lays down hot, cold, dry and wet as causes of diseases, it is right to regard him as the author's opponent. Moreover if a physician explains diseases by hot or cold or dry or wet, whether these are substances or qualities, in my opinion he is the author's opponent. Thus the opponents' range can be enlarged. While the author of AM attempts to exclude Empedoclean thought from medicine, the author of NM adopts it so positively. This author rejects the monistic view about man in chapters 1 and 2, and in chapter 3 tells that man is composed of hot, cold, dry and wet. And in the subsequent chapters he argues that man's body is composed of the four humours, and associates each humour with hot, cold, dry and wet respectively. It is noticeable that the author takes the pluralistic view and thinks that elements are four in number, that he make much of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that he explains man' generation and health by the balanced mixture. This shows Empedocles' influence on the author. In addition, the author holds that man and cosmos have hot, cold, dry and wet equally, and their change in cosmos according to seasons brings the increase or decrease of humours to man's body. Here is Empedocles' theory of macrocosm-microcosm found.

History of Spinal Deformity Surgery Part I: The Pre-modern Era

Spinal deformity is one of the oldest known diseases that date back thousands of years in human history. It appears in fairy tales and mythologies in association with evil as its dramatic appearance in patients suffering from the disease easily lent itself to be thought of as a form of divine retribution. The history of spinal deformity dates back to prehistoric times. The early attempts to treat patients suffering from this disease started from Hippocrates age. Side traction or axial traction and cast immobilization were the only possible option prior to the discovery of anesthesia. The first surgical attempts to correct scoliosis occurred in the mid 19th century with percutaneous myotomies of the vertebral musculature followed by postoperative bracing, which outcomes were very quite horrifying. Hibbs' fusion operation had become a realistic treatment option to halt the progression of deformity in the early 20th century. Harrington's introduction of the internal fixation device to treat paralytic scoliosis in 1960's started revolution on deformity correction surgery. Luque developed a segmental spinal using sublaminar wiring technique in 1976 and Cotrel developed Cotrel-Dubousset (CD) instrumentation, which was a posterior segmental instrumentation system that used pedicle and laminar hooks on either thoracic or lumbar spine and pedicle screws on the lumbar spine.

History and medicine in history, 450BC – 1450 AD

This article examines the parallel histories of medicine and history to about 1450. They emerged together as part of the shift from poetry to prose in Greek culture in the fifth century BC. They each pursued similar strategies of observation, compilation, and analysis. Hippocratic medicine provided a paradigm for Thucydides‟ development of analytic history. Medicine was further systematised by Galen in the second century AD. After the collapse and division of the Roman Empire, the Dar al-Islam became the main area of intellectual advance. Its scholars had little interest in Graeco-Roman historians, but they translated and used the scientific and medical writers. In both history and medicine they tried to create sciences based on Aristotelian philosophy. The article looks in particular at Avicenna‟s attempt to reconcile Aristotle and Galen, and compares this with the eighteenth century debate between preformationists and epigeneticists. It emphasises the need to look at such arguments in the context of their times, and notes the continuing tension between the simplicity of theory and the messiness of data. The transfer of learning from the Dar al-Islam into Western Europe paralleled that from the Graeco-Roman world into the Dar al-Islam. Again, historical writing was overlooked, but philosophical, scientific, and medical writers were translated. They would be the basis for the development of modern science.

Heat and Fever in Ancient Greek Physiology / 의사학

This paper aims at clarifying the relationship of physiological heat and pathological heat(fever) using the theoretical scheme of Georges Canguilhem as is argued in his famous book The Normal and the Pathologic. Ancient authors had presented various views on the innate heat and pathological heat. Some argued that there is only pathological heat while others, like Galen, distinguished two different kinds of heat. Galen was the first medial author who had the clear notion of the relationship between the normal heat and the pathological heat. He conceptualized their difference as the heat conforming to nature (kata phusin) and the heat against nature (para phusin). However, the Peripatetic authors, such as ps-Alexander Aphrodisias, who laid more emphasis on physiology tended to regard pathology in continuation with physiology as Claude Bernard attempted to do it. Therefore, Canguilhem's theoretical scheme turns out to be very useful in analysing the relationship of normal heat and pathological heat as is manifested in ancient Greek physiology.

On an Encounter of Acupuncture-and-Moxibustion with Natural-healing-energy / 全日本鍼灸学会雑誌

If we consider the internal and external circumstances surrounding our acupuncture-and-moxibustion (Harikyu) community in Japan, it will become clear that we are required to construct a Japanese Harikyu Study immediately. Thinking one of the traits of Harikyu is to assume the natural healing energy is a basis, searching for the root are the subjects of this announcement. If we examine the natural healing energy that is thought to be used in our clinical scene now, the hypothesis that it is not what was inherited the Chinese traditional medicine, but it is a property of the Dutch studies imported in the middle of the Edo period will emerge. The keyword is "the natural action power"described in the greatest Edo period care of health document "Byoka Suchi (Knowledge that every patient and his/her family should have)"published at the end of the Edo period. Looking back upon the thought of "the natural right ability"used as the basis of the Chinese medicine revival movement of Keijuro Wada in the Meiji period, the author argues that the natural healing energy thought with which Japanese acupuncturists is familiar was derived from Occidental Hippocrates medicine. The author also submits the hypothesis that the Japanese original healing capacity thought "Ja-Sho Ichinyo (Wrong and right are but two faces of the same coin)"served as a backdrop for the Edo period Japanese accepting the natural healing energy thought of Hippocrates medicine.

Peregrinaciones a las fuentes de la medicina clásica / A journey to the foundations of classical medicine

The author narrates his trips, between 1951 and 2006, to the main historical sites of antique medicine, where physicians of pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico and Peru, Egypt, Greco Latin culture and Islamic civilizations, lived. The trip ends with a visit to medieval European medicine before Renaissance. A description of the main historical sites and the features of these medical and sanitary cultures is made. In antique civilizations, diseases were considered a punishment of pagan deities. Supernatural and magical influences were decisive in medical practice. The Greco Latin culture of Galen and Hippocrates freed manhood from these causes of diseases and gave a rational basis to the practice of medicine. The Islamic civilization allowed the transmission of Greco Latin culture to medieval Europe. This permitted the renaissance of European creativity and the foundation of modern scientific medicine in the sixteenth century. The author highlights the main virtues of classical Greco Latin medicine, that are the foundations of humanistic thoughts that will restrin the technological revolution of modern medicine.

Lessons from History: Human Anatomy, from the Origin to the Renaissance / Lecciones de Historia: Anatomía Humana, desde el Origen hasta el Renacimiento

The well-known fact that history writers always seem wiser than the subjects on whom they write is the most logical inherent proof that history is rich in lessons. The history of Anatomy is not an exception. It is full of imperative lessons in the Art and Science of the discipline of Anatomy, which following generations ought to learn. We present a defined brief survey with this in mind.

El hecho bien conocido que los historiadores siempre parecen ser más sensatos que los sujetos sobre quienes escriben, es la más lógica prueba que la historia es rica en lecciones. La historia de la Anatomía no es la excepción. Ella está llena de lecciones imperativas en el arte y ciencia, de la cual generaciones venideras deberían aprender. Presentamos un breve reconocimiento sobre lecciones de la Historia de la Anatomía.

Hippocrates and the Nineteenth-century French medicine / 의사학

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, has been represented in many ways throughout the history of medicine. His influence on later medicine took different forms from one epoch to another. Hippocrates' medical doctrine was quite influential until Renaissance period, and with the arrival of modern medicine, the method or the spirit of Hippocrates had been valued more highly than his medical doctrine. Nineteenth century French medicine shows us how the influence of Hippocrates is still vivid even in the nineteenth century. Hippocrates, as the author of the Ai Wate Places became the founder of environmental medicine with the flourishing of meteorological medicine. And in the hands of medical ideologues he also became an proclaimer of the ideology that stressed the correspondence between men, society and nature. Laennec represented Hippocrates as the true pioneer in Clinical Medicine to which he himself made a great contribution. These various images of Hippocrates show us the universal nature of his medicine.